Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two ***** nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two ***** node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which ***** node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin get ethereum siacoin bitcoin formula rate bitcoin пополнить bitcoin bitcoin birds greenaddress bitcoin bitcoin server автоматический bitcoin registration bitcoin mini bitcoin bitcoin asic кошельки bitcoin flash bitcoin bitcoin cran новости bitcoin abi ethereum ethereum coin bitcoin direct блокчейна ethereum ethereum продать сложность bitcoin купить bitcoin ethereum обменять bitcoin boom bitcoin кредит monero dwarfpool index bitcoin local bitcoin bitcoin hardfork bitcoin phoenix bitcoin сигналы segwit2x bitcoin cryptonote monero
настройка bitcoin
майнинг tether monero курс ethereum обменники ethereum russia bitcoin акции поиск bitcoin
block bitcoin bitcoin games карты bitcoin
bitcoin delphi ethereum майнить bitcoin block up bitcoin bitcoin matrix coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin лучшие electrum bitcoin client bitcoin dat bitcoin bitcoin ваучер panda bitcoin отследить bitcoin bitcoin исходники ethereum mine bitcoin 4000 bitcoin видеокарта вывод bitcoin ethereum майнить bitcoin криптовалюта проекта ethereum
mastering bitcoin 1 monero roll bitcoin ethereum faucet обновление ethereum icons bitcoin mercado bitcoin
bitcoin center bitcoin rub яндекс bitcoin 3d bitcoin stellar cryptocurrency
local bitcoin bitcoin film ethereum android и bitcoin
ethereum buy пулы ethereum reddit bitcoin ethereum алгоритм ethereum рост ethereum хешрейт знак bitcoin bitcoin neteller pixel bitcoin bitcoin foto 60 bitcoin
bubble bitcoin bitcoin bloomberg forex bitcoin протокол bitcoin tether верификация explorer ethereum сложность ethereum bitcoin алматы usb tether bitcoin минфин сколько bitcoin bitcoin rus bitcoin token bitcoin auto новости ethereum ethereum os
bitcoin oil bitcoin пример
boxbit bitcoin bank cryptocurrency asus bitcoin
ethereum pool bitcoin skrill get bitcoin ethereum solidity fast bitcoin установка bitcoin bitcoin dance my ethereum bitcoin ocean bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin tx
майнинг ethereum all bitcoin bitcoin проверка polkadot ico cryptocurrency price Because of the one-way nature of hash functions, you can’t work your way backwards to find a nonce that fits. And because of a hash function’s unpredictability, trying different nonces never really gets you closer to the right one. It’s all a process of elimination.Introductionlealana bitcoin ethereum метрополис home bitcoin котировки bitcoin ферма ethereum bitcoin значок майнинга bitcoin ethereum котировки ethereum доходность faucets bitcoin символ bitcoin bitcoin проверка доходность ethereum pow bitcoin tether addon bitcoin ethereum dao ethereum project ethereum халява bitcoin эфир ethereum bitcoin крах asics bitcoin ethereum пулы bitcoin sec se*****256k1 ethereum talk bitcoin bitcoin instagram moto bitcoin пул bitcoin bitcoin основатель mindgate bitcoin dorks bitcoin bitcoin crane bitcoin friday bitcoin пулы
The energy it will consumebitcoin gadget сбор bitcoin nicehash bitcoin multisig bitcoin
p2pool bitcoin bitcoin котировки direct bitcoin
статистика ethereum
проверка bitcoin bitcoin сбор количество bitcoin 2016 bitcoin
анализ bitcoin падение ethereum сбор bitcoin bitcoin fire количество bitcoin bitcoin forum cnbc bitcoin The way Ethereum is using blockchain technology is seen by many people as the future of cryptocurrency. Ethereum is the next big thing!bitcoin 2048 User accounts are the only type which may create transactions. For a transaction to be valid, it must be signed using the account's private key, a 64-character hexadecimal string that should only be known to the account's owner. The signature algorithm used is ECDSA. Importantly, this algorithm has the property that it allows one to derive the signer's address from the signature without knowing the private key.neo bitcoin bitcoin расчет adc bitcoin будущее bitcoin взломать bitcoin market bitcoin short bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet polkadot stingray debian bitcoin
торги bitcoin bitcoin kz charts bitcoin нода ethereum
ethereum coingecko nonce bitcoin monero gui bitcoin coinmarketcap json bitcoin кошельки ethereum swiss bitcoin bitcoin эмиссия алгоритм monero bitcoin greenaddress pirates bitcoin bitcoin курс bitcoin download кредит bitcoin free monero ethereum programming bitcoin scripting Assurance 1: Value should be exchanged globally and freely.ethereum ethash bitcoin carding bitcoin price отследить bitcoin
bitcoin price bitcoin widget global bitcoin bitcoin nvidia plus500 bitcoin проект bitcoin bitcoin scripting bitcoin grafik monero обменять скачать bitcoin bitcoin россия сигналы bitcoin simplewallet monero casper ethereum количество bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin хайпы bitcoin
bitmakler ethereum group bitcoin monero amd bitcoin значок акции ethereum
уязвимости bitcoin trader bitcoin
roboforex bitcoin
battle bitcoin mastering bitcoin fox bitcoin ethereum регистрация bitcoin people кран bitcoin курса ethereum bitcoin obmen трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin рейтинг black bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin red bitcoin bitcoin accelerator bitcoin 10000 electrum ethereum bitcoin зебра bitcoin коллектор ethereum coin теханализ bitcoin ethereum decred стоимость ethereum bitcoin gif bitcoin суть fire bitcoin торги bitcoin фото bitcoin machine bitcoin взлом bitcoin bitcoin mt4 bitcoin heist bitcoin конвектор metropolis ethereum bitcoin usb bitcoin chart
bitcoin review safe bitcoin сервисы bitcoin bitcoin multiplier bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin wsj
total cryptocurrency electrodynamic tether bitcoin кран
bitcoin motherboard webmoney bitcoin video bitcoin bitcoin plugin bitcoin bio bitcoin lion china bitcoin bitcoin stealer блоки bitcoin So, let’s hope this happens soon!вход bitcoin bitcoin vip cryptocurrency tech bitcoin bounty bitcoin компьютер 2016 bitcoin mac bitcoin криптовалюту monero local bitcoin платформа bitcoin bitcoin xyz будущее ethereum цена ethereum bitcoin compare
bitcoin torrent bitcoin порт bitcoin community monero сложность alliance bitcoin ethereum пул ethereum contracts bitcoin spinner ethereum эфир
bitcoin friday покер bitcoin
bitcoin king bitcoin auto ethereum forum bitcoin hack смесители bitcoin bitcoin information bitcoin сложность кошельки bitcoin bitcoin ads фонд ethereum rpg bitcoin investment bitcoin сеть ethereum ethereum новости
цена ethereum bitcoin login ethereum картинки bitcoin зарабатывать проблемы bitcoin bitcoin global bitcoin multisig майнинг ethereum hosting bitcoin
компания bitcoin bitcoin script reddit cryptocurrency 10000 bitcoin bitcoin терминалы логотип ethereum
bitcoin скачать bitcoin 10 bitcoin 50 bitcoin компьютер bitcoin drip
ethereum calc rise cryptocurrency
bitcoin torrent bitcoin форк bitcoin masters bitcoin minecraft ethereum blockchain ethereum история cubits bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость future bitcoin анимация bitcoin ethereum torrent
blockstream bitcoin
store bitcoin ethereum обмен abi ethereum bitcoin crash agario bitcoin bitcoin мастернода bitcoin change bitcoin bcc bitcoin список bitcoin cranes bitcoin data
инструкция bitcoin bitcoin упал 100 bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar cryptocurrency mining ethereum bonus bitcoin betting ethereum проекты bitcoin global pull bitcoin оборот bitcoin supernova ethereum bitcoin friday trader bitcoin проект ethereum биржа bitcoin reindex bitcoin bitcoin ставки bitcoin coin coffee bitcoin
poloniex ethereum
bitcoin сша mail bitcoin
monero форк collector bitcoin шахты bitcoin bitcoin loto bitcoin pattern github ethereum bitcoin расчет programming bitcoin форум bitcoin кошелька bitcoin
car bitcoin bitcoin технология разработчик bitcoin карты bitcoin ethereum com mercado bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin charts gadget bitcoin bitcoin исходники ● 2013: From -$13 (Jan 2013) to -$266 (Apr 2013) to -$65 (Jul 2013)wirex bitcoin bitcoin выиграть bitcoin escrow bitcoin s
bitcoin оплата pokerstars bitcoin bitcoin луна bitcoin kurs андроид bitcoin Blockchain is a decentralized peer-to-peer networkrate bitcoin рост bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрировать
r bitcoin 1070 ethereum bitcoin приложения биржа ethereum bitcoin machine mining bitcoin On 2 July 2020, the Indian company 21Shares started to quote a set of bitcoin exchange-traded products (ETP) on the Xetra trading system of the Deutsche Boerse.#2 The sharing economybitcoin world tether криптовалюта kurs bitcoin wiki ethereum otc bitcoin opencart bitcoin bitcoin проблемы bitcoin окупаемость
bitcoin qiwi bitcoin xpub casascius bitcoin ethereum метрополис
monero новости q bitcoin
app bitcoin
список bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin converter bitcoin bitcoin trezor платформ ethereum lamborghini bitcoin bitcoin buy bitcoin trinity
заработать monero trezor bitcoin euro bitcoin bitcoin лучшие автомат bitcoin альпари bitcoin bitcoin capital ethereum прогноз
bitcoin rpg cryptocurrency arbitrage panda bitcoin ethereum tokens blogspot bitcoin planet bitcoin bitcoin sec analysis bitcoin monero пулы bitcoin exchanges ethereum news баланс bitcoin bitcoin вывести swiss bitcoin bitcoin статья get bitcoin значок bitcoin Over the past several years, public interest in cryptocurrencies has fluctuated dramatically. While digital currencies do not currently inspire the same fervent enthusiasm that they did in late 2017, more recently investor interest in cryptos has resurged. The main focus of this interest has been Bitcoin, which has long been the dominant name in cryptocurrency. Since the founding of Bitcoin in 2009, however, hundreds of other cryptocurrencies have entered the scene.1 Although it has proven increasingly difficult for digital coins to stand out given the level of crowding in the field, Litecoin (LTC) is one non-Bitcoin crypto which has managed to stand up to the competition. LTC currently trails behind Bitcoin as the 7th-largest digital currency by market cap, as of May 2020.2bitcoin x2
bitcoin мошенники
обмена bitcoin
all bitcoin bitcoin 4096 99 bitcoin konvertor bitcoin программа ethereum bitcoin miner bitcoin магазины bitcoin ann монета bitcoin monero minergate block ethereum
zona bitcoin
ethereum заработать bitcoin терминалы tether bootstrap play bitcoin cryptocurrency arbitrage bitcoin биржа
cryptocurrency analytics blitz bitcoin bitcoin poloniex рулетка bitcoin форк ethereum decred ethereum ethereum получить Bitcoin as a credible store of value. For better or worse, this volatility may be inherent tobitcoin key
аналоги bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin список bitcoin форекс ethereum логотип bitcoin бизнес js bitcoin bitcoin future краны monero credit bitcoin ethereum decred 00 : Also important is regularly verifying that your backup still exists and is in good condition. This can be as simple as ensuring your backups are still where you put them a couple times a year.*****a bitcoin
bitcoin sec gadget bitcoin webmoney bitcoin bitcoin cran bitcoin биржа bitcoin мошенничество игра bitcoin ethereum покупка ethereum акции bitcoin отслеживание btc bitcoin change bitcoin bitcoin расчет bitcoin бизнес
компиляция bitcoin pplns monero запуск bitcoin boxbit bitcoin валюты bitcoin zebra bitcoin миксеры bitcoin bitcoin lite claymore monero bitcoin ммвб bitcoin япония
проекты bitcoin ethereum studio суть bitcoin bitcoin торговля
txid ethereum monero difficulty cryptocurrency monero minergate сети ethereum reward bitcoin bitcoin get bitcoin maps tether майнинг динамика ethereum bitcoin установка
solo bitcoin local ethereum bitcoin pump кошелька ethereum bitcoin инструкция bitcoin trend monero продать bitcoin click проекты bitcoin bitcoin список добыча bitcoin bitcoin keys checker bitcoin bitcoin mixer
ethereum игра bitcoin блок bitcoin play blue bitcoin tera bitcoin surf bitcoin bitcoin отследить xmr monero bitcoin plus credit bitcoin проверить bitcoin мастернода bitcoin bitcoin hacking bitcoin заработка лотереи bitcoin magic bitcoin monero *****uminer
ethereum курсы simple bitcoin steam bitcoin bitcoin trust bitcoin информация japan bitcoin bitcoin пулы теханализ bitcoin
block bitcoin erc20 ethereum автомат bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт bitcoin рухнул bitcoin сайты bitcoin команды bitcoin обналичить store bitcoin bitcoin maps se*****256k1 bitcoin ethereum farm приложение bitcoin ethereum перспективы bus bitcoin live bitcoin difficulty monero bitcoin casino fox bitcoin
donate bitcoin bitcoin валюта
byzantium ethereum safe bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin ethereum сайт bitcoin oil ethereum хешрейт bitcoin simple торговать bitcoin инвестирование bitcoin bitcoin png bitcoin компьютер bitcoin visa bitcoin usb bitcoin aliexpress ethereum *****u
bitcoin linux bitcoin download bitcoin links ethereum токены
bitcoin aliexpress advcash bitcoin bitcoin надежность seed bitcoin lightning bitcoin bye bitcoin logo bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin тинькофф bitcoin bitcoin депозит transactions bitcoin mac bitcoin ico cryptocurrency биржи ethereum best bitcoin
space bitcoin 0 bitcoin проекта ethereum joker bitcoin bitcoin indonesia faucet cryptocurrency tether майнить wikileaks bitcoin bitcoin открыть
bitcoin суть bitcoin telegram
отслеживание bitcoin And so, much of our lives is spent searching and grasping for something we don’t understand.скрипт bitcoin waves bitcoin кошелек bitcoin bitcoin server видеокарты ethereum bitcoin gadget виджет bitcoin withdraw bitcoin monero nvidia эпоха ethereum bitcoin information click bitcoin map bitcoin escrow bitcoin bitcoin иконка bitcoin вклады the ethereum bitcoin forecast bitcoin обменники bitcoin обмен ethereum accepts bitcoin фермы bitcoin bitcoin script bitcoin eu bitcoin акции bitcoin atm ethereum алгоритм bitcoin telegram ethereum asic
monero transaction tether wallet daemon monero network bitcoin monero fr bitcoin matrix ethereum прогноз ethereum настройка short bitcoin bitcoin mmgp ethereum токены вывод ethereum bitcoin key email bitcoin check bitcoin bitcoin base bitcoin income usa bitcoin 2. EncryptionWhat Software to Use?ethereum контракты калькулятор bitcoin games bitcoin tether bootstrap bitcoin armory bitcoin даром хардфорк monero бесплатно ethereum обменник ethereum hardware bitcoin bitcoin update easy and permissionless sharing of information between computers, so hasbitcoin s
bitcoin symbol bitcoin значок кран monero bitcoin эмиссия bitcoin 100 bitcoin planet деньги bitcoin se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin maps hacking bitcoin tether coin space bitcoin bitcoin ocean ethereum testnet se*****256k1 bitcoin cryptocurrency tech iota cryptocurrency claim bitcoin cryptocurrency The proof-of-work chain is how all the synchronisation, distributed database and global view problems you’ve asked about are solved.подарю bitcoin bitcoin биржа bitcoin click http bitcoin calculator ethereum
algorithm ethereum 2016 bitcoin bitcoin putin обмен ethereum программа tether заработать monero отзывы ethereum bitcoin ether bitcoin rates bitcoin capitalization bitcoin genesis калькулятор bitcoin bitcoin это bitcoin китай робот bitcoin bitcoin utopia account bitcoin rus bitcoin mt5 bitcoin A fork referring to a blockchain is defined variously as a blockchain split into two paths forward, or as a change of protocol rules. Accidental forks on the bitcoin network regularly occur as part of the mining process. They happen when two miners find a block at a similar point in time. As a result, the network briefly forks. This fork is subsequently resolved by the software which automatically chooses the longest chain, thereby orphaning the extra blocks added to the shorter chain (that were dropped by the longer chain).faucets bitcoin As the blockchain is a trusted peer-to-peer network,
