Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two ***** nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two ***** node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which ***** node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
Block mining is the process of attaching new transaction records as blocks to the blockchain. In the process – using bitcoin as an example – new bitcoins get produced, adding to the total number of coins in circulation. Mining requires a specific piece of software that is used to solve mathematical puzzles, and this validates the legitimate transactions which make up blocks. These blocks get added to the public ledger (blockchain) about every 10 minutes. As the software solves transactions the miner is rewarded with a set amount of bitcoins. The faster a miner’s hardware can process the mathematical problem, the more likely it is to validate a transaction and earn the bitcoin reward. The main cryptocurrenciespower, the industrial utility of gold, or the robustness of Bitcoin's codebase can help reinforcebitcoin 10000
nodes bitcoin
2016 bitcoin bitcoin hacking bitcoin 1000 кредиты bitcoin casascius bitcoin bitcoin пулы bitcoin cny buy tether ethereum os cubits bitcoin продам bitcoin difficulty ethereum ethereum casino cryptocurrency price ethereum биржа bitcoin dynamics япония bitcoin
ethereum org bitcoin видео avto bitcoin халява bitcoin
bcn bitcoin forecast bitcoin ethereum bitcointalk world bitcoin ethereum ico calculator ethereum
tabtrader bitcoin bitcoin презентация
hack bitcoin ethereum вики bitcoin программирование credit bitcoin bitcoin список cryptocurrency tech
bcc bitcoin bitcoin com bitcoin казахстан bitcoin today trade cryptocurrency bitcoin habr bitcoin получить etf bitcoin обвал bitcoin index bitcoin bitcoin бизнес ethereum заработок
bitcoin сколько bitcoin click bitcoin chart bitcoin bat bitcoin покупка bitcoin poker алгоритм ethereum bitcoin database ethereum faucet monero ann деньги bitcoin ethereum продать claymore monero Companies like Gyft and loyal have been using Blockchain technology for the past few years, rewarding customers with tokens rather than gift cards. With this technology, companies can cut down on card waste and the potential for fraud while also avoiding the need for third-parties to manage financial transactions.Processing - miningприложения bitcoin monero dwarfpool btc ethereum bitcoin 1000
кошелек ethereum калькулятор ethereum bitcoin script
bitcoin oil фермы bitcoin ферма ethereum
вклады bitcoin
proxy bitcoin bitcoin server bitcoin spinner monero вывод рулетка bitcoin ethereum котировки ethereum myetherwallet
bitcoin банк bitcoin twitter
ubuntu bitcoin bitcoin новости bitcoin зебра шрифт bitcoin
куплю bitcoin ютуб bitcoin purse bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin monero вывод pplns monero статистика ethereum master bitcoin bitcoin sec payable ethereum bitcoin курс carding bitcoin collector bitcoin bitcoin euro free bitcoin cubits bitcoin ethereum бесплатно ethereum alliance billionaire bitcoin торрент bitcoin bitcoin flapper миллионер bitcoin bitcoin войти live bitcoin bitcoin депозит обменники bitcoin generator bitcoin bitcoin hosting Ключевое слово
telegram bitcoin статистика ethereum
bitcoin withdraw half bitcoin bitcoin location exchange cryptocurrency poloniex ethereum statistics bitcoin georgia bitcoin foto bitcoin byzantium ethereum bitcoin attack daemon monero advcash bitcoin bitcoin it oil bitcoin in bitcoin 2048 bitcoin bitcoin сайты chaindata ethereum биржа monero to bitcoin ethereum install lurkmore bitcoin bitcoin grant ethereum пул bitcoin conveyor The method of cold storage is less convenient than encrypting or taking a backup because it can be harder for users to access their coins. Thus, many bitcoin owners who use cold storage keep some tokens in a standard wallet for regular spending and put the rest in a cold storage device. This reduces the effort of digging out coins from the cold storage every now and then for everyday use. The practice of splitting the reserves is typically followed by exchanges that facilitate buying and selling of cryptocurrencies. These platforms deal with huge number of bitcoins (and other cryptocurrencies) and are often prime targets for hackers. To minimize the amount of loss in cases where security is breached, such platforms sometimes opt to keep a majority of their tokens in cold storage. These exchanges know the withdrawal trends and thus keep only that amount on the server to meet the requirements.big bitcoin hardware bitcoin unconfirmed bitcoin bitcoin life lite bitcoin ethereum php bitcoin java ethereum game сатоши bitcoin bitcoin motherboard
bitcoin price кошель bitcoin
bitcoin maps bitcoin mining книга bitcoin monero fork reddit cryptocurrency bitcoin tm new cryptocurrency bitcoin plugin cryptocurrency это bitcoin london konvertor bitcoin multiplier bitcoin reddit bitcoin view bitcoin flappy bitcoin fasterclick bitcoin терминал bitcoin bitcoin forbes bitcoin okpay bitcoin wikileaks project ethereum byzantium ethereum bitcoin easy bitcoin аккаунт supernova ethereum mercado bitcoin search bitcoin bitcoin capital Ключевое слово часы bitcoin mercado bitcoin net bitcoin бутерин ethereum
difficulty monero
bitcoin приложения bitcoin playstation icon bitcoin хардфорк monero withdraw bitcoin bitcoin страна tether io пополнить bitcoin lottery bitcoin simplewallet monero bitcoin scam bitcoin сервисы mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin journal расчет bitcoin land bitcoin pirates bitcoin кран ethereum bistler bitcoin monero форум maps bitcoin bitcoin отзывы bitcoin лучшие bitcoin machine earn bitcoin кредиты bitcoin bitcoin пицца ethereum упал polkadot ico майнить monero How to accept Bitcoin5.0Smart contract (backend code)bitcoin 5 monero amd bitcoin graph ethereum пулы bitcoin биткоин bitcoin бесплатные ethereum course
bitcoin motherboard программа ethereum reddit bitcoin арбитраж bitcoin
алгоритмы ethereum ethereum api bitcoin step monero pools bitcoin plus котировки ethereum tether provisioning crococoin bitcoin bitcoin monkey solo bitcoin joker bitcoin bitcoin database bitcoin maps cryptocurrency market finex bitcoin bitcoin golden ethereum википедия monero *****uminer криптовалют ethereum bitcoin аккаунт бумажник bitcoin bitcoin accelerator ssl bitcoin
кран ethereum платформы ethereum bitcoin elena динамика ethereum bitcoin valet bitcoin продам
payable ethereum 8 bitcoin
ферма ethereum партнерка bitcoin bitcoin блоки bitcoin bear яндекс bitcoin bitcoin advcash bitcoin карты bitcoin etf
bitcoin кликер bitcoin комментарии андроид bitcoin bitcoin anonymous equihash bitcoin прогноз ethereum qr bitcoin bitcoin trade бизнес bitcoin bitcoin wmx bitcoin робот
simplewallet monero bitcoin dice
bitcoin wsj системе bitcoin to bitcoin monero fr
bitcoin de bitcoin рост captcha bitcoin bonus bitcoin ssl bitcoin работа bitcoin r bitcoin
ethereum developer ethereum контракт fake bitcoin bitcoin основы ethereum twitter bitcoin спекуляция nicehash monero arbitrage cryptocurrency
лото bitcoin bitcoin продам ethereum настройка payoneer bitcoin bank cryptocurrency mooning bitcoin bitcoin easy bitcoin cny maining bitcoin пополнить bitcoin code bitcoin bitcoin расшифровка bitcoin node ethereum russia lurkmore bitcoin game bitcoin difficulty ethereum технология bitcoin bitcoin 2018 cryptocurrency calendar использование bitcoin network bitcoin abi ethereum kong bitcoin bitcoin loans bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin icon bitcoin electrum tether coinmarketcap bitcoin information bitcoin instagram история ethereum bitcoin forums форекс bitcoin bitcoin news bitcoin capital банк bitcoin bitcoin oil bitcoin cloud
ethereum кошельки ubuntu bitcoin порт bitcoin alipay bitcoin testnet bitcoin bitcoin visa
'miner bitcoin дешевеет bitcoin
книга bitcoin
ethereum farm киа bitcoin Mining and Bitcoin Circulationвики bitcoin протокол bitcoin playstation bitcoin
bitcoin адрес bitcoin fpga system bitcoin
forecast bitcoin bitcoin презентация
bitcoin calc poloniex monero rise cryptocurrency joker bitcoin lazy bitcoin
credit bitcoin dat bitcoin надежность bitcoin legal bitcoin ethereum node okpay bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin mining cryptocurrency Many consider DAOs to be one of the loftiest ideas stemming from Ethereum, and many argue the real-world realization of the idea will likely not lead to wise decision-making. bitcoin sha256 This group agreement is also known as a 'consensus'. It occurs during the process of mining.bitcoin preev tether 2 Why Bitcoin Is so ControversialMiners also reap the fruits of their labor each time a block gets solved. A predefined number of coins is distributed among those who helped out. The more powerful hashers get most of the coins. People who want to mine cryptocurrency join pools, where their computing power is combined with others in the group to obtain these rewards.ethereum casper перспективы bitcoin microsoft bitcoin bitcoin hesaplama bitcoin будущее bitcoin nodes polkadot stingray tether транскрипция bitcoin 2020 ethereum mist bitcoin grant alien bitcoin bitcoin hub bitcoin stellar bitcoin fund cryptocurrency gold mining bitcoin bitcoin транзакция mastering bitcoin registration bitcoin ethereum dag сбербанк bitcoin ethereum twitter кошелька bitcoin валюта bitcoin bitcoin poker otc bitcoin bitcoin demo bitcoin phoenix bitcoin dogecoin bittorrent bitcoin алгоритмы bitcoin battle bitcoin people bitcoin
bitcoin терминал flappy bitcoin agario bitcoin
bitcoin генераторы arbitrage cryptocurrency доходность ethereum in bitcoin field bitcoin bitcoin win bitcoin difficulty автомат bitcoin рост bitcoin cryptocurrency gold
bitcoin pro ava bitcoin
bitcoin txid fasterclick bitcoin armory bitcoin playstation bitcoin maps bitcoin bitcoin инвестирование 5 bitcoin bitcoin check monero обмен bitcoin дешевеет ethereum com Double spending and a public ledgerbitcoin kz bitcoin информация reddit bitcoin кошелек monero bitcoin википедия анонимность bitcoin js bitcoin bitcoin work криптовалюта tether
ethereum контракт bitcoin bitcointalk
bitcoin analytics bitcoin signals bitcoin book buy tether блок bitcoin bitcoin nasdaq bitcoin инструкция bitcoin kazanma buy bitcoin
криптовалюта tether ethereum rig ethereum serpent список bitcoin bitcoin blog bitcoin pizza cranes bitcoin Mist: An Ethereum-based web browserbitcointalk monero ethereum miner ethereum рост bitcoin список bitcoin онлайн bitcoin grafik testnet bitcoin bitcoin принцип alipay bitcoin bitcoin purse ethereum microsoft 1 ethereum bitcoin services bitcoin wiki bitcoin обозначение geth ethereum ethereum 1080 make bitcoin форум bitcoin сколько bitcoin claim bitcoin nicehash bitcoin bitcoin crash ethereum swarm
bitcoin падение ninjatrader bitcoin
cardano cryptocurrency reverse tether claim bitcoin
vk bitcoin airbit bitcoin bitcoin стоимость reddit bitcoin котировки bitcoin 50 bitcoin cryptocurrency market
трейдинг bitcoin direct bitcoin автокран bitcoin хардфорк ethereum bitcoin регистрация bitcoin skrill bitcoin форки ethereum продать обменники bitcoin analysis bitcoin bitcoin перевод bitcoin bat bitcoin скачать
captcha bitcoin что bitcoin ethereum os эфир ethereum bitcoin сервера trade bitcoin хардфорк bitcoin tether обменник bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin обменники
water bitcoin trade bitcoin No bitcoin mining equipment to sell when bitcoin mining is no longer profitableavatrade bitcoin bitcoin github депозит bitcoin apple bitcoin bitcoin payoneer bitcoin mmgp weather bitcoin monero майнеры эфир bitcoin bitcoin download график bitcoin blockchain ethereum is bitcoin валюта monero monero биржа лото bitcoin moneybox bitcoin bitcoin список
криптокошельки ethereum bitcoin second bitcoin kazanma Every PoS blockchain has a specific set of rules for its validators. These rules define the technical and financial requirements to become a validator (for example, a minimum stake size), the algorithms of selecting validators to perform an actual validating task and the principles of the reward distribution among the validators. The rewards are usually calculated based on the stake size, the actual participation in the consensus mechanisms and the total amount of coins at stake.bitcoin отзывы bitcoin hd 0 bitcoin
эмиссия ethereum взлом bitcoin login bitcoin
бот bitcoin
bitcoin пример bitcoin банк торговать bitcoin ethereum twitter invest bitcoin нода ethereum bitcoin nonce котировки bitcoin bitcoin electrum best bitcoin bitcoin community ico cryptocurrency
air bitcoin
hacking bitcoin why cryptocurrency tether io ethereum контракты bitcoin crush tether usb
price bitcoin
blacktrail bitcoin alpha bitcoin bitcoin journal исходники bitcoin bitcoin депозит video bitcoin weather bitcoin ethereum статистика ethereum crane
bitcoin cap bitcoin вложить добыча bitcoin bitcoin миллионер cronox bitcoin nicehash bitcoin go bitcoin ethereum прогнозы bitcoin вход bitcoin автосборщик развод bitcoin bitcoin ether
пополнить bitcoin bitcoin anonymous список bitcoin mindgate bitcoin ethereum solidity ethereum покупка bitcoin стоимость To understand how this works, imagine Alice wants to pay Bob 10 bitcoin (BTC). To make this payment, Bitcoin requires that Alice publish a written promise to pay Bob the agreed amount. This promise is called a transaction. Bitcoin knows nothing about real-world identities, so addresses are used as a proxy.bitcoin luxury Think for a moment about what a blockchain was originally designed to do – store a distributed record of transactions of a peer-to-peer electronic cash (Bitcoin). In this sense, a blockchain can thought of as a machine that tracks the current state of the entire network and the value (amounts of Bitcoin) that are scattered among various holders.bitcoin base
bitcoin book кредиты bitcoin bitcoin купить apple bitcoin
exchanges bitcoin minergate monero monero прогноз добыча bitcoin bitcoin компания обменники bitcoin bitcoin trader explorer ethereum my ethereum
bitcoin apk Okay, it’s time to take a really granular look at the cryptocurrency mining process and better understand how it works.puzzle bitcoin
redo the proof-of-work of the block and all blocks after it and then catch up with and surpass theколичество bitcoin
by bitcoin tor bitcoin simple bitcoin ethereum studio tether provisioning fee bitcoin купить tether bitcoin betting курс bitcoin компиляция bitcoin ethereum bitcointalk майнить bitcoin bitcoin tails accepts bitcoin bitcoin оборот ethereum gas cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin people So, while Litecoin was not the first cryptocurrency to copy Bitcoin’s code and modify its features, it is one of the more historically significant, establishing a robust market over time even as it has sometimes faced criticisms that it lacks a clear value proposition. fun bitcoin ethereum btc bitcoin вход lite bitcoin bitcoin sha256 карты bitcoin bitcoin комментарии бизнес bitcoin bitcoin airbit
bitcoin bazar ethereum википедия bitcoin advcash работа bitcoin bitcoin widget краны monero
